testaments of noblewomen in the holy roman empire Multiple exemplars of a will may have been made for the testatrix and the executor(s), simply as back-up copies, or as an additional exemplar authenticated by a public notary.62 Then they may have been deposited in different places, apart from the location of the testatrix herself, with designated religious or lay institutions, or with relatives or trusted persons, thus providing information about the testatrix’s social relations. That the existence of several exemplars of a will could also open the door to manipulation is illustrated by the case of Countess Matilda of Sayn. Three exemplars of her testament were made by Lambert, chaplain and subcustos of the cathedral chapter of Cologne, with different numbers for the sum to be bequeathed to the scribe. While the copy intended for Matilda herself bears the ‘correct’ amount, the other exemplars for the Archbishop of Cologne and the cathedral chapter name a larger amount, perhaps to give Lambert an advantage in the expected payment disputes.63 Usually, wills appear to be incomplete and cover only certain parts of a woman’s property, which was heavily dependent on the legal possibilities for alienating or inheriting certain assets.64 This is not least evident from the creation of separate bequests, which must be assumed especially when close(r) relatives are not mentioned in the surviving will. Changing circumstances may also have necessitated (minor) alterations, or additions, leading to the making of codicils, which may either be attached to the existing will as a transfix (see nos. 3, 22) or issued separately (see e.g. no. 44).65 Altered conditions could also lead to the production of a new will. In at least eight cases of this corpus, mostly involving prominent women of high rank, more than one will was made during their lifetime.66 However, this may have happened more often than we 62 The corroboratio or the notarial subscription indicate that one or more instruments may be drawn up. In some cases, we have evidence that two or three exemplars were actually made: e.g. nos. 31 (two exemplars were made, in case one were lost), 32 (identified as instrumentum duplicatum;Vienna, HHStA, FUK772 is a contemporaneous copy), 38, 44, 50. 63 Bohn et al. 1995, pp. 259f; Bohn 2002, p. 447. 64 Kasten 2007, pp. 606f; Spieß 2015, pp. 143f, 157, 482; Antenhofer 2021, pp. 195f; Hörmann 2023, p. 544. 65 See also above n. 27 and 38. 66 Nos. 3 and 4; 9 and 10; 11 and 12; 14 and 16; 34 and 36; 39 and 45; 40 and 46. Matilda of 68
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