53 Beckman 1954, pp. 241–242; see Jexlev 1980, p. 32 about a Danish woman who gave gold rings to relatives in 1292. 54 Lenninger 2000. 55 Masè 2018, p. 171 for Venice; Sheehan 1963, pp. 103–105 for England. 56 Myrdal 2014, p. 230; see also for Denmark Kjersgaard 1978, pp. 160–161, where horns were common gift in testaments. 57 Rahmquist1990, pp. 56–57; also in other testaments horns have names. 58 Sheehan 1963, p. 295. 59 SDHK1248; 4641; 5312; 11424 = Erslev 1901, pp. 120, 150, 179. Interestingly, the set that was given to a woman had earlier been in the possession of the queen. janken myrdal hundred beneficiaries.53 From the later Middle Ages, Lenninger has identified a network of knights, friends rather than relatives, utilising their bequests of gold rings to connect to each other, as shown in a testament from 1440.54 That rings of gold were given to close relatives and others in the aristocracy was a common pattern over Europe.55 Thegold ring represented a social bond on a high and horizontal level. Silver cups were a gift between men, as were drinking horns. Interestingly it is quite often mentioned that these cups and horns have been received from other men in earlier wills. For instance, the canon Lars gave five cups to other members of the chapter in Uppsala, two of which he had received earlier, and six drinking horns, of which he had received one earlier.56 Drinking horns could have fancy names. In one testament from 1308 the five horns mentioned bear names such as “Buckuljäkä”and “Rinniande”.57 In England such large drinking horns are also mentioned in testaments.58 This habit of giving and receiving drinking vessels was related to drinking rituals. Other objects. Many other items illuminating different aspects of everyday life might have been mentioned; here I only pick one: chess sets. I have registered six gifts of such sets from 1283–1408 in Denmark and Sweden. All testators were clerics, as were four of the beneficiaries, but one of the recipients was a servant and one a woman.59 To gauge the role of chess for women and men in medieval society other sources need to be consulted, such as images and literature. This consideration opens onto another aspect of research on objects in testaments: results always have to be incorporated into findings from other sources. I have labelled this a source-pluralistic approach, and ty379
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