peter erhart Crossing the borders of the Lombard kingdom triggered a lot of bureaucracy that could even be compared to today’s entry requirements for countries with visas. Especially for pilgrims on their journey to Rome, theclusae must have represented a critical point, where “epistolae,money or persuasion may have been necessary to pass”.8 The necessity of such anepistola formatafor travellers heading to Rome was already confirmed some decades earlier by its inclusion in the Formulae Marculfi, a collection redacted most probably by the monk Marculf of the royal Abbey of Saint-Denis, active in the second half of the 7th century.9 sengers and let us be informed of the matter. For any judge who delays in doing this, and if, God forbid, someone passes by with an authorisation of his own, his blood will be endangered and his property confiscated. And if he dares to swear that this has been done without his permission, let him be acquitted of the charge; however, even if he is exonerated, let him pay as a settlement for his negligence his own wergeld to the palace according to his status. And we also add this, that each judge should take care in his jurisdiction in the territories of Tuscia that no man may pass through without the king’s consent or seal. And if it is found that he has passed through without permission or seal and [the judge] is not exonerated, let him pay his wergeld as a settlement.” 8 Pohl 2000, p. 140. 9 Rio 2009, pp. 81–92. 10 Zeumer 1886, pp. 104–105. Translation by Rio 2008, p. 227, slightly modified by Benjamin Savill on <http://csla.history.ox.ac.uk/record.php?recid=E06233> (accessed 23 March 2024): “General letter to all men. – To our orthodox lord Pope A, placed by God in the 131 Indeculum generali ad omnes homines. – Domno nostro ortodoxo, Romanae sedis apostolicae a Deo instituto illo pape vel omnibus apostolicis domnis et patribus seu abbatibus vel Deo decatas coenobiis degentibus, necnon et inlustribus viris, patriciis, ducibus, comitibus vel omnibus christianae cultu divine relegione sectantes, ille peccator vilissimus omnium in Domino presumo mitte salutem. Quatenus presens portitur ille, radio inflammantem divino, non, ut plerisque mos est, vacandi causa, sed propter nomen domini itinera ardua et laboriosa parvi pendens, ob lucranda orationi limina sanctorum apostolorum domni petri et pauli adire, cupiens, meae parvitatem se petit vestre commendare almitate ac industriae litterolas, per quas vilissimus omnium tamquam vestris provolutus vestigiis singulorum supplecare presumo, ut pro me minimo exorare iubeatis et eidem euntem vel redeuntem, si Dominus permiserit, propter nomen Domini solita pietate et commendatum recipiatis et quod necesse habuerit impertire tanti habeatis, quatenus ab ipso mereamini mercedem recepere comolam, que sibi dixit implere, quantum quis in suis pauperibus visus fuerit erogare.10
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