bruno debaenst Brumaire of the yearVIII(9 November 1799),which brought him to power as First Consul, he immediately reduced the number of newspapers from 73 to 13. In 1811, there were only four left. Moreover, Napoleon used the press as propaganda, to glorify his genius.19 After Napoleon’s removal from power, monarchist France and the United Kingdom of the Netherlands (also) installed repressive press regimes.20 This was one of the causes of the Belgian revolution in 1830.21 Under the influence of French liberal ideas, with Benjamin Constant as most important representative,22 the 1831 Belgian Constitution implemented the freedom of the press and the freedom of opinion.23 AsBram Delbecke has shown in his doctoral research on the history of the freedom of the press in Belgium, the press was seen as the mouthpiece of public opinion.24 In the eyes of the Belgian revolutionaries, the press had to play a specific role in the Rechtsstaat, as an independent and critical evaluator of government policy.25 This did not imply that the freedom of the press should be absolute: a certain government control was still deemed 19 On the other side of the Channel, his opponents were also successful in influencing the public opinion. The caricatures of Napoleon by James Gillray for example, have survived the times. Soutou, Des Lumières à l’opinion publique, s. 77. 20 Delbecke, Bram, De lange schaduw van de grondwetgever. Perswetgeving en persmisdrijven in België (1831–1914), Gent 2012, s. 16–32: In France it would take until 1881 before the press regained freedom. See Ader, Basile, La presse à la barre du tribunal. La loi du 29 juillet 1881 sur la liberté de la presse, une grande loi républicaine. I: d’Orceval, François (red.), Opinion publique et crise de la démocratie, Paris 2019, s. 361–368. 21 Delbecke, Bram, The Political Offence and the Safeguarding of the Nation State: Constitutional Legal Standards and Belgian Legal Practice, 1830–1870, Comparative Legal History. 1 (1) 2013, s. 45–74. 22 On Benjamin Constant and his (shifting) ideas on the public opinion, see: Ghins, Benjamin Constant and Public Opinion and Geiss, Peter, Der Schatten des Volkes. Benjamin Constant und die Anfänge liberaler Repräsentationskultur im Frankreich der Restaurationszeit 1814– 1830, Paris 2011. 23 Article 14 of the 1831 Belgian Constitution: “La liberté des cultes, celle de leur exercice public, ainsi que la liberté de manifester ses opinions en toute matière, sont garanties, sauf la répression des délits commis à l’occasion de l’usage de ces libertés.” In English: “Freedom of worship, its public practice and freedom to demonstrate one’s opinions on all matters are guaranteed, but offences committed when this freedom is used may be punished”. See: https://www.dekamer.be/kvvcr/pdf_sections/publications/constitution/GrondwetUK.pdf 24 Delbecke, De lange schaduw van de grondwetgever, s.37. 25 Delbecke, De lange schaduw van de grondwetgever, s.38. 69
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