from well-travelled – marianne vasara-aaltonen 335 court.994 Examples of favouritism can be found in other branches of the administration as well.995 The careers of the Svea Court of Appeal judges showed how career paths within the court itself became the norm during the eighteenth century. The changes we witness naturally raise the question of what the grounds for promotion were. How did one advance in the system? During the period of absolutism, which began in 1680, the king was able to appoint officials freely, considering whom he felt was most distinguished. This changed with the Age of Liberty, and the 1719 and 1720 Instruments of Government decreed how and according to what merits officials, including members of the courts of appeal, were to be appointed. The state tried to establish better control of appointments and reduce the importance of personal contacts in the administration.996 The eighteenth century has been described as a time of increased bureaucratization and questions of the qualifications of officials were discussed in various parts of Europe.997 The Swedish Instrument of Government of 1719 refers to merit and skills (förtjänst och skicklighet) and the more elaborate 1720 Instrument of Government states that the Boards (kollegier) (which included the courts of appeal) are to suggest three men most knowledgeable, worthy and best suited for the vacant position (förståndigste, värdigaste och till den ledige beställningen tienligste personer) among whom the Crown would choose. The paragraph goes on to state that candidates are chosen according to tested experience andmerit (bepröfvad erfarenhet och förtienst),which could be attained through such things as study. The grounds for promotion thus appear to be quite indeterminate. During the years to come it was experience (erfarenhet), that is, years in service, which was regarded as the most important.998 In the mid-eighteenth century, there was also a rising interest in questions of upbringing and education, and a commission of upbringing (uppfostringskommission) was established in 1745. The emphasis was on practical 994 RA, SHA, Tjänsteansökningar E IVa, vol. 7, Carl Dubbe. 995 See Edler, P.J. 1915 pp. 47-48. 996 Cavallin, Maria 2003 p. 76. 997 Vepsä, Iisa 2009 pp. 234, 248. 998 RF1719 § 34, RF 1720 § 40, printed inFrihetstidens grundlagar, ed. Brusewitz; Cavallin, Maria 2003 p. 78. Advancement in the Eighteenth-Century Bureaucracy
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