the execution and its message mately be stated with the words: ”L’échafaud est un autel”.165 MichelBée in the French ritual before the revolution brimming of liturgy sees in the atonement through the punishment andin the burial in the parish churchyard the reintegration of the condemned into society.166 Andrea Zorzi in a study of Italian medieval cities, focusing on the origin of penal ceremonial, describes the development of a system which comprised three phases, with some variations between cities in the timing. He describes a development where the judicial systems evolved and imposed the principle that a crime against an individual was a crime against the state and would be punished as such by the state. Asignificant general trend through the phases were amore frequent use of capital punishment, going from rare to central in the system of penalties and thereby in the display of power and authority. Another trend was a more ritualised display of power in other parts of the penal system such as the courts. The first phase, roughly corresponding with the thirteenth century, consisted in the emergent systematic penal justice and thereby also a systematic and wider spread of the use of the penalty of death. The second, roughly the fourteenth century, was a time of further development and standardisation of rituals and systems of both the courts and the execution. In the third phase, the fifteenth century, this system matured into a stable, politically useful system of penal justice.167 Martine Charageat takes a broader approach to the system discussed by Zorzi by more clearly involve both the work of the brotherhoods and an international perspective.168 While these systems evolving, confraternities, starting in Italy began their work of preparation of the condemned. The first foundations are said to have been Bologna in 1335 and Florence in 1343.169 Those in Italy have been especially studied, but such confraternities were found across Southern Europe, and even up to Belgium and Austria.170 Through the participation of the brotherhoods and 165 Maistre 1837 I:44I:er entretien, II:141 X:e entretien. ’The scaffold is an altar’. 166 Bée 1975 p 97, Bée 1983 p 849. However, in France, at least in the seventeenth century, those executed were generally refused a Christian burial, Bastien 2005 p 299 sqq. 167 Zorzi 2007 p 49 sq. 168 Charageat 2015 p 84 sq. 169 Gravestock 2006 p 130, see also Prosperi 1982 p 964, Edgerton 1985 p 179. 66
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