the strategies behind the reactions and the counterstrategies tion. The punishment designed to induce abhorrence for vices and sin lost its effect when the criminal was displayed in triumph as a martyr.840 In 1800, an article went even further in its criticism. Any impression left by the delinquent caused damage. The learned and sensitive was pained by seeing a wretched and broken figure, while a brave person being executed gave the enthusiasts an opportunity to hail a hero, a martyr.841 In 1853 in an article in a Swedish legal magazine, the result of the public execution was described as a tragedy where a hero or a martyr was met with compassion or admiration, thereby diminishing deterrence and disgust at the crime.842 Heroes and martyrs are close on the scaffolds. Piety and subversion can coexist.843 These understandings of the public executions increasingly became a problem especially for the state and were rather held by the powerless than by those in authority. Confidence was a sought-after quality, but among those making official decisions it was increasingly unwelcome in the condemned. Therefore, the executions were altered in many ways, but a fundamental pattern of official strategy is clear. Heroes and martyrs are persons and subjects but in later execution process bodies and objects became the ideal.844 The clashes between all authorities and the condemned could take many forms. An early and interesting example is the clothes the condemned wore on the way to and at the execution. It was quite common 840 See e g Steinbart 1769 p 14 sqq, Miller 1774 p 206 sqq, Sturm 1784a p 14 sqq. 841 Neues Hannöverisches Magazin 1800 nr 76 col 1416 sqq. 842 Juridiska föreningens tidskrift vol 6 1853 p 7 sq: ”Den, som någon gång övervarit en offentlig avrättning, torde medgiva att de, som bevista en sådan, vanligen betrakta den endast såsom ett tragiskt skådespel, däri hjälten framkallar medlidande eller beundran och betraktas såsom offer eller martyr, ett föreställningssätt, som den livdömdes ytterliga nedstämning eller sjukliga överspänning bidraga att stärka. Delinkventen, som sålunda bliver ett ofrivilligt föremål för åskådarnes nyfikenhet eller intresse, får därigenom i deras tanke en tillfällig märkvärdighet, ett slags anseende, som förorsakar, att den avsky för brottet, det avskräckande, som åsyftas med bestraffningen, har för alltid avdunstat innan denna hunnit verkställas, helst, i anseende till den långsamma proceduren i dödsmål, brottet och dess omständigheter i åskådarens ögon hunnit antaga en mildare färg långt innan straffets verkställighet ifrågakommer.” 843 See e g Dolan 1994–95 p 170 sq. 844 See Johnson 1990 on dehumanisation in the modern execution process. 235
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