Executions, especially as their rituals evolved during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, involved practices and habits well suited to be interpreted referring to martyrdom as a recurring motive. The idea of martyrdom and above all its relationship to the suffering of Christ – displayed in art in most churches, in song and music, preached and tirelessly adored – laid the foundation for the dismantling of the deterring power of the execution. The confession and faith similar to a martyr’s, coupled with a hostile and resenting environment, transformed the hated criminal who was expected to manifest despair into a redeemed and forgiven soul departing for heaven. Even though the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ was the most significant example of an execution ultimately being a symbol of hope, martyrdom is older. For example, from the age of the Maccabees we hear about them remaining true to their confession, although it caused them suffering and death.381 The prototypical example for the Christians is Jesus, also in meeting death. His execution on Golgotha has been reproduced in countless works of art and Jesus went willingly, although with some hesitancy, to Jerusalem and to Golgotha where he knew he would suffer and be executed.382 In the letters of the New Testament this line of thought is elaborated. Jesus is not only the silent lamb, the victim not resisting – His death on Golgotha is also his own active undertaking.383 Soon the Acts describes the execution of St Stephen, the first Christian martyr, followed by St James.384 Martyrdom was also not only experienced, but also reflected on in the Patristic era, when new precedents to follow emerged. Early among them was the eloquent bishop Ignatius of Antioch. In the beginning of the second century, he was sentenced to be devoured by beasts in Rome. On Martyrs on the scaffold the execution and its message 381 2 Macc 6: 10–7:41, see also Brox 1961 p 155 sqq. 382 See e g Mk 10:33 sq. 383 See e g Hebr 9:11 sq. 384 Acts 7 and 12. 112
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