484 elite, who could not find methods within the old system to control the marginal population. The increased use of corporal punishment can thus be explained by the increase in the social gap between the administrators of justice and certain of the delinquents. That executions also became emotional symbols in the theatre of power was partially a by-product. Governmental interests were often accompanied by large fines for violations, amongst other reasons because the risk for discovery was so low. This often led to even prosperous farmers being forced to submit to corporal punishment, e.g. when they had been caught felling high-grade timber. While it is plausible to assume people would accept that thieves be subjected to this ignominy, it could hardly have been popular when otherwise honourable citizens were afflicted. Furthermore, attitudes towards violence, even as punishment, were more negative during the course of the 18th century than during the warlike 17th century. At the end of the 17th century it was already difficult to recruit people who were willing to supervise the running of the gauntlet outside the court doors. In reality punishment by birching or flogging, except in the case of theft and other particularly serious crimes, was abolished during the 18th century and replaced by prison with bread and water. Prison combined with hard labour in fortresses began to be implemented as a complement to fines and as a replacement for the death penalty. The death penalty and physically cruel punishments were reserved for really serious cases. A deterrent instrument in a society with an ineffectual apparatus for tracking down criminals. It should be noted that the death penaltv, in Sweden as well as in e.g. England, very frequently was changed to a fine, corporal punishment, prison with hard labour or suchlike. One way to save thieves fromthe gallows was to assess the value of the stolen goods to a figure which was lower than that which the lawstipulated for the death penalty. At the end of the 18th century more and more voices were raised against the death penalty as being barbaric. One of the most well-known debaters, even in Sweden, was the Italian Beccaria who advocated the deterrent effect of prisons on the populace. It is quite clear that Beccaria acted more froman overestimation of the deterrent effect of a prison sentence than from humanitarian motives, but even “philanthropical” arguments were often heard in the debate. One can not disregard the fact that both points of view contributed to the reforms. Only later did the belief that prisons even could improve the inmates, so that they would leave as reformed human beings and better members of society, grew in strength. The ideas on reformation should naturally be regarded in connection with a generally growing belief that it was possible to find methods to solve the problems of society in the spirit of the Age of Enlightenment. On the continent the concept of the re-education of degenerate citizens can be traced back to the end of the 16th century and in Sweden to the 17th century. As long as state resources were used for other purposes and most
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