10 of the administration became full time work, which was remunerated in cash. A new type of university-trained, professional civil servant emerged, thus laying the ground for what would eventually become permanent civil service careers in the state administration. Special training was even required of the lower officeholders, the subalterns, although such training was conducted within the administration itself.-^ The profound administrative reforms initiated by Peter the Great built upon the tradition of collegial administration. Nine colleges were established in Russia in 1718, and the tasks of the state administration were apportioned among them in a systematic manner. Within its own area, each college was given exclusive jurisdiction, which was national in scope. The nine areas of jurisdiction were tax collection and the administration of revenues {kamer-kollegiia), fiscal planning (shtats-kontor-kollegiia), auditing {revizion-kollegiia), the administration of justice (iustits-kollegiia), the conduct of foreign affairs {kollegiia inostrannykh del), and the supervision of commerce {kommerts-kollegiia), mining and manufactories {bergi manufaktur-kollegiia), the army {krigs-kollegiia), and the navy {admiralteiskaia kollegiia). The expressed aim of these collegial reforms was to follow the example of other European states by creating an efficient administrative system which would facilitate a more intensive exploitation of the economic potential of the Russian empire. With a clear touch of cameralist thinking, the so-called General Regulation, the basic legislative act concerning the Russian administrative reform, pointed out that Tsar Peter, “following the highly commendable example of other Christian countries,” had founded colleges in Russia: for the Improvement of wholesome justice and order, for the proper administration of state affairs, for the correct identification and calculation of revenues, as well as to protect as far as possible his faithful and, because of the long and burdensome war, impoverished subjects, for the maintenance of his military forces both at sea and on the land, for the improvement of trade, handicrafts, and manufactories, as well as for the proper ordering of sea and land customs duties, for the relief and improvement of mines, and for other state needs. As was the case in several other instances in Peter the Great’s Russia, Western European models were sought out for the restructuring of the administration. Contemporary diplomatic reports from St. Petersburg portray Sweden, Russia’s primary military opponent, as the direct model for Peter’s administrative reforms, and it was claimed that Swedish prisoners of war served in the Russian colleges. This impression was given Marc Raeff, “The Well-Ordered Police State and the Development of Modernity in Seventeenth- and Eighteenth-Century Europe: An Attempt at a Comparative Approach,” American Historical Review, 80 (1975), 1232, and Zielenziger, 85—86. -« lA(no. 400), 413.
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